Bless Me, Ultima Critical Analysis essays

Bless Me, Ultima Critical Analysis essays 1. "The waters of the pool were clear and pure, but dark from their depth and shadows of the surrounding brush. The sun was crystaline white in the clear, blue sky, but still there was the darkness of shadows in this sacred spot," (113). Throughout the entire novel of Bless Me, Ultima, Antonio struggles to be received by fellow students in his class. The best season of the year to attempt to associate with friends is the summer period. Instead of appearing, gray and contrasting like it does in winter, the "waters of the pool are clear and pure." "The sun was crystaline white in the clear, blue sky" embodies the mood and ambience of the summer season. The "darkness of the shadows" implies that both autumn and winter are just around the corner. Summer helps me to recognize the wonders and miracles that the earth truly has to offer. Variation will come with the rotation of the seasons, but summer will keep hopes and joy running high for Antonio. He gets to start school being accepted and having some friends. Before the school year begins, Antonio needs to fight to meet new friends, and Antonio needs to soak up as much information from Ultima as humanly possible to help prepare him for school. 2. "The green of the river passed through a bright orange and turned brown. The trickle of water in the river bed was quiet, not singing as in summer. The afternoons were gray and quiet, charged with the air of ripeness and belonging," (147). During the seasonal progression throughout the year, Antonio reminisces about the previous summer, which is his learning season with Ultima. Antonio has become harmonized with the environment, and has learned to cherish the ever-changing nature surrounding him. He notices that the vigor and the intensity of the river is being depleted by the arrival of the winter season."The trickle of water in the river bed was quiet, not singing as in the summer" is the obvious clue that the river i ...

4 article summaries and 1 website review Assignment

4 article summaries and 1 website review - Assignment Example Sources reveal that contracts from first imprints give the publisher the freedom to come up with fresh sources. Most of the big houses have declined to comment on the matter as they argue it is not their place to discuss contract negotiations. One of the challenges of reporting changes of book publishing is that all new contracts are open for discussion (Fawcett 5). This is the normal way of conduction business but agents believe that the fear that vague language about formatting begins to come thus they advocate for a format that was globally accepted in the past. Random house has made changes on its contracts because of criticism from SFWA and other groups on the terms of new digital imprint. The most significant change is that prospective writers will have a chance to choose from the original profit share deal and more traditional royalty deal. In addition to adding new option to the contract, the house has also made public the terms of new contract, which is something that the publishers are not ready to do. There is no advance given in the profit model. Hydra or Flirt and the author will share equally the profit from the first copy sold. The cost of production will be covered by Hydra, Alibi, Loveswept, or Flirt and they will also cover marketing cost connected to imprint. They will also cover marketing costs specifically for the book up to $10000 but the title marketing cost will be proposed to the author (Maeda 17). If the author agrees and there is increment on the cost of the title, then deduction will be made from sale revenues before the profit is shared. If there is any cash owned to the author, then it will be paid quarterly. The advanced plus royalty offers authors a more traditional way of publishing with the royal standard 25% of the net receipts. The authors will be paid an agreed amount against the royalties and production, shipping, and marketing cost will be covered by Hydra, Alibi, Loveswept, or Flirt. Both models give Hydra, Alibi,

The classical music business may be considered a minor part of the Essay

The classical music business may be considered a minor part of the music industry in 2014, but it is actually a vital component - Essay Example This developed a type of musical lyrics in which the musical notation emerged as just one of the many written sources that provided information. Such information enriched an individual with musical comprehension, its works and performances. Performance of classical music became entirely dependent on how well the performer construed the essence of the musical score and lyrics of that music. The advent of gramophone record and its impact on music has contributed towards the decline of literacy in classical music. This has diffused classical music that surpassed the conventional connection between the subject matter of music with its social context and performance venues (Dahl, 2009, p.66). This paper explores the classical music in contemporary music industry. Music can be inspirational for all although its preference may decline with age. As per one research, it was found that young people give more importance to music than adults and therefore they listen to music more often. Moreover young people prefer listening to different kinds of music in all occasions as opposed to adults who prefer specific kinds of music mostly in private context (Bonneville-Roussy et al., 2013, p.703). Music as an inspiration and relaxation has been proved by many researchers. Today, music is used everywhere from shopping malls to dental offices since it is both stress reliever and a positive force on psychology (Joyce, 2003, p.5). According to Kramer (2008, p.13), classical music is almost like a â€Å"living museum, living precisely because it is a kind of museum, and, like a museum, a place that exhibits new works as well as old†. The state of classical music in modern time is mostly shaky. For several years, classical music has experienced a steady decline in its popularity especially in America. There are many symptoms that prove this fact like a weakening CD market for classical music, lack of fund for symphony

Report on Ryanair and British Airways Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 3000 words

Report on Ryanair and British Airways - Essay Example 334). With the message â€Å"To fly. To Serve.† British Airways has access to almost 169 different destinations in the world. Ryanair When the aviation industry of Europe went into the phase of deregulation in the late 1990s, Christopher Ryan, Liam Lonergan and  Tony Ryan’s infant Ryanair received just the opportunity that it was looking for to make an impact on the global aviation industry (Schein, 2006, p. 41). Following the model of Southwest Airlines, Ryanair has also been able to replicate the success enjoyed by Southwest. The company now flies to more than different destinations and posted revenue of over 4.3 billion Euros for the year 2012. Important here to note is that Ryanair is a low cost budget airlines and follows a Southwest model, whereas, British Airways has refrained from doing the same (Purcell, et al., 2004, p. 214). Organisational Culture and Organisational Structure and Design There is empirical evidence which conclusively suggest that strong orga nisational culture and organisational structure have the potential to provide stability to organisations. In fact, certain organisations, over the years, have been able to outclass their competitors and withstand the pressures of globalisation, competition and macro environmental forces, primarily, because of their strong organisational culture or suitable organisational structure. Organisational culture plays a boundary defining role (Mills, et al., 2006, p. 334; Purcell, et al., 2004, p. 214). In other words, it draws a clear line between the organisation and others, thus, creating an â€Å"us versus them† feeling amongst the employees to motivate them to work for the goals of the organisation (Purcell, et al., 2004, p. 115). Organisational structure, on the other hand, refers to the patterns of relationships and interactions within the company. The greater the individuals within an organisation have to communicate and interact; the greater becomes the need for finding an a ppropriate and suitable organisational structure and design for the organisation (Griffin & Moorhead, 2009, p. 74; Cunliffe, 2008, p. 75). Outline of the Paper This paper is an attempt to explore and analyse the organisational culture and organisational structure of British Airways and Ryanair, the two giants of the aviation industry in Europe. Not only the paper would comparisons between these two organisations but relevant theoretical material would also be used to analyse the suitability and relevancy of the organisational culture and structure of these organisations. Discussion Organisational and Structure and Design at British Airways and Ryanair It was during the year 2008/09 that British Airways made it apparent to the world that it wants to reinvent the organisational structure and restructure the hierarchy to make a much leaner, agile cost effective and responsive organisational structure. British Airways realised that in the times marked with European Sovereign Debt Crisis , global economic meltdown, financial crunch, decreasing consumer confidence and recessionary pressures, it is almost impossible to survive within the highly competitive airline industry in the absence of taking more radical steps (Tosi & Pilati, 2011, p. 574). However, the organisation also realised that in order to make changes at the organisational level, they would have to start at the top and begin this change from the top

Development in Language Learning Essay Example for Free

Development in Language Learning Essay Language educators in mono-linguistic societies world-wide face a commonly held myth: children are only able to handle one culture and one language at a time. No doubt this is due to the fact that these perceptions are largely formed by adults who have been brought up and conditioned to think in the modes of a one-language, one-culture society. Yet research has shown that children are much more flexible in these areas than most adults would give them credit for. Children world-wide learn two, three and more languages in their early years and while there may be some short-term developmental delay the long-term benefits from learning other languages is considerable. In the great majority of cases parents are the principle teachers of one or two of these languages and as the children’s main caregivers are ideally suited for the job. Parents, the most prestigious people from a child’s perspective, are the most important factor in molding a child in the pre-school years. The purpose of this paper is to take lessons learned from bilingual homes and apply them to second language learning at preschool. The core elements discussed will be the benefits of bilingualism and pre-literacy programs in the preschool years. There is no doubt that early literacy gives a marked advantage to children entering into primary school. It follows that the advantage would be double if literacy was promoted in two languages. What this paper seeks to show is that this can be done by using methods taken from successful bilingual households and mimicking them in second language education for preschoolers. Additionally, by providing early reading and listening activities linking the home and the second language, schools can make use of the one of the most powerful factors in the learning of a second language by preschoolers, parental support. Before these activities are outlined it is essential that we summarize the benefits of pre-reading skills in bilingual households. Discussion and Summary of Research 1. Benefits of Early Reading in Diverse Languages There is no doubt that given the environment and the proper motivational tools young children show an interest in reading and being read to. Parents who incorporate the reading of stories into a preschooler’s daily activities will see the increased chance of literacy at a young age. Theorists for years have been telling us about the benefits of reading to our child. Mackler (1997) claims that the more enjoyable a child’s experience with early reading the greater is the possibility that they will read with frequency in the future. She states that, â€Å"Young childrens self-initiated interactions with print at home are important behavioral indexes of emerging motivations for reading. Shared storybook reading plays an important role in promoting reading motivations; when the socioemotional climate is positive, children are more interested in reading and more likely to view it as enjoyable† (p. 69). Andersson (1977) concludes that â€Å"Parents who read, study, and discuss interesting or important subjects in the presence of their children and who answer their childrens questions create a close relationship with their children, a relationship which older children are quick to adopt with their younger siblings. † It only follows that if reading in one language to a child is profitable to the child’s future education reading in two languages is even more profitable. Andersson (1977) claims that early reading for children and their parents is an experience that brings joy and self-esteem to a child and that this is doubly so for children who have the opportunity to enjoy literature in two languages. In his study on family reading in two languages Andersson (1977) researched the early reading process of three families. He concludes that, â€Å"far from being a double burden, learning to read in two languages is a double joy, leading to a positive self-image. † Meier (2003) adds that children being read to in two different languages tend to learn about the distinctive cultures of the two languages. She claims that â€Å"From these book reading experiences, many children acquire an extensive book-based vocabulary and absorb important cultural lessons about things like gender roles, family relationships, and the nature of friendship† (p. 242). She also claims that these early reading experiences help children adapt to the school environment by teaching them to listen quietly and attentively, raising their hand when they wish to speak and remembering their questions until the end of the story (p. 243). One study done on low-income Spanish speaking immigrants and their children showed that reading done within the family helped considerably in expanding vocabulary of Spanish at home with a group of three-year-old children (Akers, Boyce, Cook, Innocenti, Jump Roggman, 2004, p. 371). Forty-seven mothers and their three year old children were analyzed while they shared reading time. The conclusions were that their children’s attention was expanded and that conversation and interaction within the family were enhanced (Akers, Boyce, Cook, Innocenti, Jump Roggman, 2004, p. 383). The most significant change was that the children’s vocabulary was significantly broadened (p. 384). Yet it is important to emphasize that investigation shows that while literacy can improve upon second language learning, bilingualism does not necessarily improve upon literacy. Bialystok (2002) contends that much of the literature surrounding literacy and bilingualism in fact argues that bilingualism promotes literacy and that this is not necessarily the case. She concludes that the relation between bilingualism and literacy depends to a large extent on certain skills developed by teachers and parents and that in this sense bilingualism at the time literacy begins can result in â€Å"an advantage and sometimes a disadvantage for bilingual children. Bilingualism clearly affects childrens development of literacy, but its effect is neither simple nor unitary† (p. 159). 2. Bilingual Families: What We Can Learn Although there is a great deal of literature on the benefits of learning a second language the deep grained fear in mono-linguistic cultures is that learning two languages at the same time is trying for that child. But some theorists claim that language learning for bilingual children is in fact quite the same for monolingual children (Paneque, 2006, p. 171). What is more important for authors such as Paneque (2006) are other factors such as â€Å"who provides the language input, or when the second language is introduced† (172). She adds that while some children may start the process of becoming bilingual at birth other start in their preschool years but that â€Å"Either way, both methods of becoming bilingual can be effective† (p. 172). Other studies claim that the fear of slow development caused by bilingualism causes children to know neither of the languages well. Mclaughlin (1995) claims that, in fact, it is uncommon that both languages be in balance. He claims that, â€Å"One language typically predominates in use and exposure. When this happens, elements of the other language can quickly be lost. The child can forget vocabulary and even rules of grammar† (p. 4). The author concludes that it is only a question of time before the other language catches up and evens out the results (p. 4). Genesee, Paradis and Cargo (2004) conclude that children are more than capable of learning more than one language, either at the same time or one after the other. While many people focus completely on teaching methodologies authors such as Walqui hold that the psychological side of second language learning is in fact just as important. Stresses and fears brought out in the home and school environment can result in problems for the bilingual child. Walqui claims that, â€Å"While many discussions about learning a second language focus on teaching methodologies, little emphasis is given to the contextual factors—individual, social, and societal—that affect students’ learning. There is no doubt that the success with which bilingual children develop both languages depends largely on two factors: school support and home support. While at home a child may speak one language at school they may speak another. In order for them to become proficient in the home language they must have the support of their family. Walqui (2000) claims that support from family is essential to second language learning. She states that â€Å"Some educators believe that parents of English language learners should speak only English in the home. However, far more important than speaking English is that parents value both the native language and English, [and] communicate with their children in whichever language is most comfortable. † There are a couple of important conclusions to make on the research done up until this time. The first is that the literature has shown us that the natural process of becoming bilingual can lead to inequalities in the learning of one language or the other at certain times. The second conclusion is that given the right support by the family and education institutions children can learn both languages to the satisfaction of both. The third is that communication through conversation and shared reading can greatly enhance a child’s vocabulary in either language. What we can take from these three points of bilingualism in preschoolers is that if the same circumstances of sharing and reading with bilingual children are applied to children learning a second language out of the home the possibilities of success would be enhanced. Application of Research Activities That Use the School and the Home to Promote a Second Language Playschool support, home support and shared reading are the three elements of the program this work will propose to use to develop the second language abilities of preschoolers at an age in which they may learn the basics of literacy in their second language at the same time they do so with their first language. Although there is debate on the language learning window and when it closes Paneque (2006) concludes that early childhood does seem to be the optimal time for language learning. She claims that it is â€Å"when the childs mind is still open and flexible, and not cluttered with all sorts of other learning, not to mention the societys views on which languages are prestige languages, and which ones are regarded by the society as of little or no importance† (p. 171). Before we go into the particulars of the proposed program first we should mention that it works around the presumption that the first priority to the family of a second language learner is to push their maternal language and excellence in that language. Indeed, Fortune (2003) states of English speaking students in immersion programs that parents must provided an atmosphere which will enhance their development of the English language. She claims that principally they should read and play games with them that will develop their literacy and vocabulary in English. She concludes that â€Å"Research shows that the stronger the development of the native language, the greater the proficiency in the immersion language, so children who enter an immersion program with a strong base in English will succeed more easily than those whose English skills are not as strong. † What is proposed here is that parents simply use one of the tools of promoting that language, pre-reading skills, to incite their preschoolers to open their mind to another language. So how can pre-reading be incorporated into a family that may not even understand the basics of the language being learned by the preschooler? This can be done by organizing a pre-reading program which connects the home and the preschool. Throughout the year teachers will choose a variety of simple word books that incorporate vocabulary the children have already learned in class. The teacher will read the story to the children and attempt to encourage their participation on discussing its characters, ideas and plot. Over the course of time they will do various activities that will work with the stories vocabulary and plot. These types of activity will obviously be dependent on the age group the teachers are working with. When the teacher is finished working with the story they will send the project on to its second stage – home discussion. The story will go home with the preschooler where it will be incorporated into family reading but it will not be the parents reading the story but rather the preschooler. The preschooler will be required to re-tell the story or act out the story as they remember it but by translating it into the families language. The family will be encouraged by the school to ask the child to instruct them on new vocabulary in the outside language. It is through activities like this that parents can help to support the second language by showing pride and accomplishment in what their child has learned up until that moment. Preschoolers in particular will be pleased that they have the opportunity to teach their family. Bilingual books may be used to further help the parents with the activity. Meier (2003) also provides an outline for choosing and presenting the chosen books that would help preschool and kindergarten teachers gain more interest from their students. She recommends that first and foremost a teacher choose a book that â€Å"relates to children’s lives† (p. 248). Secondly she recommends that teachers ask â€Å"creative and open ended questions† to stimulate interest in the story (p. 248). Lastly Meier believes that if a teacher makes a book come a live by using props it will garner a far greater interest in the story (p. 248). Summary It is through pre-reading programs like this that playschool teachers teaching a second language might harness the most powerful factor in a young child’s life, parental support, without disrupting the important mode of communication that is the maternal language. It is undeniable that both the reading and the acquisition of languages are of great educational importance. By combining the two and providing the right support at preschool and at home teachers and parents may be creating an atmosphere where these young children can take advantage of the flexibility their young minds allow them in language learning. References Akers, J. F. , Boyce, L. K. , Cook, G. A, Innocenti, M. S. , Jump, J. F. Roggman, L. A. (2004). Sharing Books and Learning Language: What do Latina Mothers and Their Young Children Do? Early Education and Development, 15 (4), 371-386. Andersson, T. (1977). A Guide to Family Reading in Two Languages The University of Texas at Austin Evaluation, Dissemination and Assessment Center, California State University, Los Angeles, http://www. ncela. gwu. edu/pubs/classics/preschool/iii. htm Bialystok, E. (2002). Acquisition of Literacy in Bilingual Children: A Framework for Research Language Learning, 52 (1), 159–199.

Barriers To Communication

Barriers To Communication For any kind of communication to be successful, it is essential that the receiver attributes the same meaning to the message as intended by the sender of the message. But all acts of communication are not perfect or successful. At times, some meaning is lost as the message encounters various barriers along its passage between the sender and the receiver. Such barriers may arise at any of the stages through which a message passes during the process of communication. This is also called miscommunication. Some of the common problems that lead to the failure of communication are: noise, cultural differences, complexity of subject matter, personal biases, semantic problems, socio-psychological barriers, filtering, information overload, poor retention, poor listening, goal conflicts, slanting, inferring, etc. Barriers to communication can be classified as follows on the basis of the stage of the communication process during which the problem/s arise: a. Sender-oriented barriers: lack of planning, lack of clarity about the purpose of communication, improper choice of words resulting in a badly encoded message, difference in perception, wrong choice of the channel, unjustified presumptions, etc. b. Receiver-oriented barriers: poor listening, lack of interest, difference in perception, biased attitude, etc. c. Channel-oriented barriers: noise, wrong selection of medium, technical defects in the address system or the medium of communication chosen by the sender, time and distance, etc. We may define communication as a psycho-semantic process. Therefore, the barriers that affect the effectiveness of communication are mostly of social-psychological-linguistic nature. These factors may act upon any or all of the elements of the process of communication, that is, the sender or the receiver or the channel. And a common barrier for both the sender and receiver can be the absence of a common frame of reference which often leads to the breakdown of communication in a specific situation. A common frame of reference is the context in which communication takes place. A well-defined context helps the sender and the receiver to comprehend the content of the message in a similar way, with regard to its implications and meaning. Many of the barriers listed above are easy to understand. But a few of them may require a detailed explanation. DIFFERENT TYPES OF BARRIERS The various barriers to communication can be classified into the following broad categories: 1) Semantic or language barriers, 2) Physical barriers, 3) Personal barriers, 4) Emotional or perceptional barriers, 5) Socio-psychological barriers, 6) Cultural barriers, and 7) Organizational barriers. SEMANTIC/LANGUAGE BARRIERS Semantics is the systematic study of the meaning of words. Thus, the semantic barriers are barriers related to language. Such barriers are problems that arise during the process of encoding and/or decoding the message into words and ideas respectively. Both the oral and the written communication are based on words/symbols which are ambiguous in nature. Words/ symbols may be used in several ways and may have several meanings. Unless the receiver knows the context, he may interpret the word/symbol according to his own level of understanding and may thus misinterpret the message. The most common semantic barriers are listed as under: Misinterpretation of Words Semantic problems often arise because of the gap between the meaning as intended by the sender and that as understood by the receiver. This happens when the receiver does not assign the same meaning to the word/symbol as the transmitter had intended. Words are capable of expressing a variety of meanings depending upon their usage, i.e. in the context in which they are used. The association between the word/symbol and the meaning assigned to it is of arbitrary nature. For example, the word yellow when used as an adjective can have multiple connotations depending upon its usage. Words have two levels of meaning- literal (descriptive) and metaphorical (qualitative). Yellow, besides being a primary colour, also stands for freshness, beauty, sickness, decay, etc. Hence, the receiver is free to interpret it in any of these ways based on his own imagination and experience. But for communication to be perfect, it is essential that he must assign to it the same mean ing which the sender had in his mind while encoding the message. Therefore, there is always a possibility of misinterpretation of the messages. Mostly, such problems arise when the sender does not use simple and clear words that can convey the exact meaning to the receiver. Use of Technical Language Technical or specialized language which is used by people or professionals who work in the same field is known as jargon. Such technical language can be a barrier to communication if the receiver of the message is not familiar with it. For example, in the computer jargon, to burn a CD means to copy the data on a CD. To a layman, the word burn may have a very different connotation. Ambiguity Ambiguity arises when the sender and the receiver of the message attribute different meanings to the same words or use different words to convey the same meaning. Sometimes, wrong and speculative assumptions also lead to ambiguity. A sender often assumes that his audience would perceive the situation as he does or have the same opinion about an issue or understand the message as he understands it, and so on. All such assumptions may turn out to be wrong and cause communication failure. PHYSICAL/ENVIRONMENTAL BARRIERS Physical barriers are those barriers which are caused due to some technical defects in the media used for communication and/or due to certain disturbances in the surrounding environment. Often, the term noise is used as a blanket term to refer to the physical barriers in general. But noise, in its literal sense, is also one of the factors that give rise to the physical barriers during the process communication. Besides noise, wrong selection of medium, lack of acoustics, poor lighting, frequent movements of hands, fiddling with a pen, or even serving of tea during an important conversation- all of these are also responsible for creating physical barriers in the communication process. Noise The first major barrier to communication is noise. Communication is distorted by noise that crops up at the transmission level. The meaning attributed to the word noise in the field of Communication is derived from the realm of Physics. In Physics, noise refers to a disturbance, especially a random and persistent disturbance, which obscures or reduces the clarity of a signal. The modern-day connotation of the word noise is irrelevant or meaningless data as is apparent from its usage in the field of Computer Science. For example, the noise of the traffic around a school obstructs the smooth flow of information between the teacher and the students. It makes oral communication difficult. Similarly, poor signal or static while talking over the cell phone or while using the public address system or while watching TV also distorts the sound signals and disrupts communication. Bad weather conditions may also sometimes interfere with the transmission of signals and may lead to breakdow n of the communication channels. As discussed above, noise is not only the disruption of sound signals, but it also includes all the barriers that may arise at any of the various stages of communication. In a broad sense, it denotes semantic barriers, perceptional barriers as well as psychological barriers. Time and Distance Time and distance also act as barriers to the smooth flow of information. Today, because of technological advancements, we have faster means of communication available to us and this in turn has made the world a smaller place. But at times, these means of communication may not be easily accessible because of unavailability or due to technical/technological problems. This may lead not only to a physical but also a communication gap between the transmitter and the receiver. Time differences between people living in two different countries may affect communication between them. Even people working in different shifts in the same organization may also face problems in communicating effectively. Improper seating arrangement in a classroom or in a conference hall may also act as a barrier to effective communication as it is difficult to maintain eye contact with ones audience. Thus, communication can be successful only when the communicators manage to overcome the barrier s by minimizing the obstacles that crop up due to spatial and temporal factors. Wrong Choice of Medium This can also create a barrier to effective communication. For example, if an expert uses charts or graphs or PowerPoint presentations to orient the illiterate workers or volunteers to a new method of working, they are bound to be ill-equipped to infer any information or instructions from such sophisticated presentations. Surroundings Adverse weather conditions affect not only the means of communication, but also have an impact on the sender and the receiver of the message. When two people have to communicate with each other under extreme weather conditions, whether too hot or too cold, their surroundings do have a direct repercussion on the effectiveness of the exchange that takes place between them. Thus, environmental factors determine peoples mood and also influence their mental agility and thereby their capacity to communicate effectively. Extreme heat and humidity make people either hyper or listless and thus cause immense stress which in turn affects clear thinking and the attitude of the communicator; whereas, extreme cold weather induces laziness and also impedes the ability to think clearly and respond sharply, thereby causing communication failure. PERSONAL BARRIERS Communication is interpersonal in nature. Thus, there are certain barriers that are directly linked to the persons involved in the communication process, i.e. the sender and the receiver, which influence the accurate transfer of the message. These are called personal barriers. In any business organization, the attitude of the superiors and the subordinates play a vital role in determining the success of communication. If the superiors have a hostile attitude, then there are chances that they may filter the information or manipulate the message, sometimes intentionally, in order to achieve certain selfish motives. Many superiors are not open to suggestions and feedback as they presume that their subordinates are not capable of advising them. Also, they often tend to keep too busy with work and do not pay much attention to communication. Due to this, the downward flow of information within the organization is badly affected and this in turn leads to poor performance. Besides, the super iors often exercise their authority by insisting that the subordinates should approach them only through proper formal channels of communication. If, under any circumstances, the subordinates try to communicate to the superiors directly, then they may take offense as they perceive such an attempt as a challenge to their position of power. Such an attitude thus becomes a barrier to effective communication. On the other hand, there are certain factors that influence the participation of the subordinates in upward communication. Lack of confidence and fear are the primary reasons why the subordinates fail to communicate openly and comfortably with the superiors. If they feel that some information may, in some way, harm their prospect/ interest in the organization, then they prefer to conceal such information. In case, if that is not possible, then they filter the information so that they cannot be held responsible for the same. Moreover, when the superiors do not support the active involvement of the subordinates in the functioning of the organization by encouraging them to exchange their ideas and to give suggestions that would contribute to the success of the organization, the subordinates become indifferent to such reciprocity and this creates a barrier to upward communication. If the subordinates feel that their ideas and suggestions are of no value to the superiors, then they do not feel motivated to convey the same. Therefore, on the basis of the above discussion, we may conclude that personal barriers have their origin in the attitude of the sender as well as the receiver. Personal barriers often lead to distortion, filtering, and omission of information and thus have an adverse effect on the fidelity of communication. EMOTIONAL OR PERCEPTIONAL BARRIERS Emotional or perceptional barriers are closely associated with personal barriers. Personal barriers arise from motives and attitudes (as seen above), whereas emotional or perceptional barriers have an added dimension that includes sentiments and emotions as well. If the receiver does not evaluate the information with an open mind, i.e. objectively, his judgment/evaluation would be colored by his biases and/or his emotions, thus inducing him to read too much into a message. This would interfere with the exact transfer of information and cause misinterpretation. Such a barrier may also emerge at the time of encoding the message. Over-enthusiasm on the part of the sender may lead him to invest his message with meaning/s which he may actually not have intended to. Besides, too much aggression or passivity on the part of either the sender or the receiver, while communicating, also has an adverse effect on the success of communication. Also, too much of emotion thwarts reason and sometimes , the communicator, blinded by his own sentiments, makes impulsive judgments or illogical decisions. This also results in the breakdown of communication. Indolence, apathy, or the tendency to procrastinate, either on the part of the sender or the receiver, also lead to withholding of important information thus creating a barrier. Extreme emotions like euphoria, excitement, anger, stress, depression, etc. also get in the way of effective communication. All these factors may create biases in the mind of the sender and/or the receiver. Therefore, the sender and the receiver may encode and decode the message respectively as per their own perceptions, background, needs, experience, etc. And this leads to a distinct kind of exchange of ideas and feedback as well. They tend to obfuscate the reality and see what they want to see. This is also one kind of filtering that takes place during the communication process. SOCIO-PSYCHOLOGICAL BARRIERS Socio-psychological barriers can also be considered as one of the offshoots of the personal barriers, akin to the perceptional barriers. We need to study it as a subcategory of personal barriers because a persons attitude is shaped not only by his instincts and emotions, but also by his approach towards and his interaction with the people around him, and hence the need for this fine distinction between the personal, the perceptional and the socio-psychological barriers. To begin with, the consciousness of ones position in an organization has an effect on the two-way flow of communication. A vertical channel of communication is present in every organization, but its efficacy is heavily influenced by the relationship between the superiors and the subordinates. Though many organizations are now becoming accustomed to the open door policy, the psychological distance between the superiors and the subordinates still prevails. Status consciousness is thus one of the major barriers to succes sful communication. Moreover, in a communication situation, the communicators have to deal with two aspects of the reality- the one as they see it and the other as they perceive it. The mind filters the message i.e. the words/symbols/signs and attributes meaning to them, according to individual perception. Each individual has his own distinctive filter, formed by his/her experiences, emotional makeup, knowledge, and mindset which s/he has attained over a period of time. Because of this difference in perceptions, different individuals respond to the same word/symbol/sign based on their own understanding of the situation and ascribe meaning to it on the basis of their unique filter. At times, his difference in perception causes the communication gap, i.e. distortion, in the message. In face-to-face communication, this gap can be easily eliminated as there is immediate feedback. But in written communication, the semantic gap between the intended meaning and the interpreted meaning remains unidentified, as the feedback is delayed or sometimes there is no feedback at all. Besides, a person with deeply ingrained prejudices is very difficult to communicate with. He is not responsive to discussion or to new ideas, information, viewpoints and opinions. He has a closed mind and tends to react antagonistically, thus ruling out all possibility of communication. An unreceptive mind can, hence, be a great barrier in communication. To overcome this barrier, people should be receptive of new ideas and must learn to listen considerately with an open mind. Also, sometimes the listener maybe too much in awe of or may completely distrust the speaker. In both these situations, the chances of success of the communication are very less. Furthermore, information overload leads to poor retention and causes information loss. So, whenever there is some important information to be conveyed, the communicators must use the written channel of communication. On the basis of the above discussion, we may thus conclude that the socio-psychological factors do have a profound impact on the effectiveness of communication. CULTURAL BARRIERS Culture is the totality of socially transmitted behavior patterns, arts, beliefs, institutions, and all other products of human work and thought. Culture is learned and shared within social groups and is transmitted by non-genetic means. (American Heritage Dictionary, 2005) From this definition, we can infer that culture is the sum total of ideas, customs, arts, rituals, skills, etc. of a group of people which is handed down from generation to generation. Simply put, culture is the shared ways in which groups of people understand and interpret the world. (F. Trompenaars, Riding the Waves of Culture: Understanding Diversity in Global Business; 1994) Each group, categorized on the basis of nationality, ethnicity, race, religion, etc. has its own distinctive culture. Thus, there are varied subcultures that exist within a major culture. Such immense cultural diversity plays a very crucial role in communication as it has an extensive influence on both verbal and non-verbal communication a nd may therefore create barriers to effective communication. Cultural differences give rise to a great deal of complexity in the encoding and the decoding of messages not only because of the difference in languages, but also because of plenty of culture-specific assumptions at work in the mind of the sender as well as the receiver. People belonging to different cultures may attach different meanings to words, symbols, gestures, and behaviour or they may perceive each others social values, body language, attitude to space distancing and time, social behaviour and manners, etc., i.e. the entire culture in general, very differently depending upon their own standards, attitudes, customs, prejudices, opinions, behavioral norms, etc., i.e. their own distinct culture. Thus, cultural barriers arise when people belonging to different cultures insist on preserving their cultural identities and at times, judge the other cultures as inferior to their own. (For a detailed discussion on the various elements that can create cultural barriers, refer Chapter ___ International Communication on page ___) ORGANIZATIONAL BARRIERS Organizational structure greatly influences the flow of information within an organization. Some major organizational barriers are as follows: Goal Conflicts There may be goal conflicts within the organization between the superiors and the subordinates, between people working in the different departments, between the colleagues, etc. This may create a hostile atmosphere within the organization and can lead to serious communication breakdown. Organizational Policies These are also to a great extent responsible for determining the kind of rapport that people working in the same organization share with each other. If the organizational policy is such that it restricts the free flow of information in all directions (refer Formal Channels of Communication on page ___), then communication would not be successful. In some organizations, there may be rules that restrict the flow of certain messages and this may deter the employees from conveying those messages, however important they may be. If the organization favours the open door policy, the subordinates would not feel shy and reluctant to approach their superiors directly. But in the organizations where the formal channels of communication have to be strictly followed, the superiors and the subordinates share a very awkward relationship. They experience a lot of discomfiture while interacting with each other. Because of this, the objective of communication may never be accomplished. Organizational Hierarchy The hierarchical structure of the organization also impedes the flow of information and causes delay in taking decisions. When the message passes along the chain of command in an organization, there are chances of filtering and distortion of the message at almost every level before it reaches the intended receiver. Thus, the hierarchical structure of the organization is also one of the important factors that may create a barrier to effective communication. On the basis of the above discussion, we may thus sum up that barriers to communication are the aspects of or conditions in a workplace- such as status differences, gender differences, cultural differences, prejudices, and the organizational environment- that interfere with effective exchange of ideas or thoughts. (Business Dictionary) However, there are certain specific strategies that can help us to surmount these obstacles and achieve the purpose of communication. These are discussed in detail in the following section. GUIDELINES- HOW TO OVERCOME BARRIERS TO COMMUNICATION On the basis of the various kinds of communication barriers listed in the previous section, let us now ennumerate certain strategies that would help us to overcome these barriers and thus improve communication. As effective communication is essential for the success of a business organization, the communicators must take care to remove the barriers in the way of communication, to the best extent possible. In communication, it is not enough only to know the message. For communication to be complete, the message must be understood by the audience. The communicator shares his message through the medium of words- spoken or written, through gestures, through symbols, etc. Thus, from this we can infer that communication, whether verbal or nonverbal, is symbolic in nature. These two aspects of communication determine the fundamental difference between effective and ineffective communication. If an idea/information is known to but not fully understood by the receiver, then the communication will be ineffective. The sender can know whether the message has been understood by the receiver through his response, i.e. feedback. The following are some general guidelines for the sender and the receiver of the message: For the Sender of the Message At the very outset, that the sender should reveal the purpose of his message and the important topics that he would deal with. By doing so, he prepares the receiver for what is to follow. This helps the receiver to identify the main points of the message, to recognize the link among the important ideas that the message contains and to organize them in a meaningful pattern in his mind. The message should be compact and the sender should concentrate exclusively on the main ideas or information that he intends to convey. Likewise, the sender should situate his ideas in an appropriate context so that the audience will evaluate and interpret them within that common frame of reference which the sender has indicated or suggested. While communicating, the sender should, at all times, emphasize the important points of the message with the help of bulleted lists, chart, graphs, illustrations, body language, tone, pitch, etc. He should also provide a summary at the end of his presentation or write-up. This will help the receiver to grasp the overall meaning of the message, thus making it easy to understand the various parts, i.e. ideas, in relation to the overall framework. The sender should arrange the ideas/information in such a way that it is appealing to the audiences visual and/or auditory senses. In written communication, the writer may make use of an attractive layout and good quality paper to attract the readers attention. While communicating orally, the sender must take care to minimize noise. He should make sure that his surroundings are well-equipped with the necessary acoustics. He should pay special attention to his facial expressions, gesture, and eye contact with the audience at the time of deliver ing the message. The sender should be clear about why he wants to communicate and his message should be precise and well-structured. He should take care to select an appropriate channel or medium so that the impact of message is not lost in transmission. He should send his message through an effective channel i.e. keeping in mind his audience and the purpose of the message and should select a channel where there are less chances of distortion. The sender should avoid using grandiloquent words in order to avoid the possibility of misinterpretation of the overall meaning of the message. The sender should neither burden the receiver with information overload nor should he provide him too little information. He should identify his audience before encoding the message so that he knows what his audience may already known and in what context he should place his message. The sender should formulate and deliver his message in such a way that it retains the audiences interest in what he intends to convey. He s hould do away with all his prejudices and preconceived notions and must communicate clearly and with an open mind. All these would enable him to have an audience-centric approach while encoding his message. For the Receiver of the Message In the initial stage of the communication process, the onus is entirely on the sender of the message. But in the later stage, the receiver plays an active role once he starts absorbing and processing the information in his mind. Thus, the receiver of the message also plays an equally important role in the successful completion of communication. Not all barriers are sender-oriented. The barriers arising from the side of the receiver are known as receiver-oriented barriers. The foremost barrier on the part of the receiver is poor retention. When the message being conveyed is of complex nature, he may lose track of the context in which the sender has initiated communication. To overcome this barrier, the receiver must develop the habit of noting down the important points. If the receiver has a difficulty in concentrating on the message or if he is not interested in the topic being discussed, this too would have a direct influence on his ability to listen effectively. In order to deal with such situations, the receiver should accustom his mind to absorb and assimilate all kinds of information by making a conscious effort to generate interest in and concentrate upon what is being conveyed. When the receiver is too judgmental about the message been delivered or too critical of the style of delivery of the sender, it creates a bar rier as the receiver totally misses out on what the sender is actually trying to communicate. Thus, the receiver should avoid being judgmental and should not be in a hurry to evaluate the message without being aware of the exact context in which it articulated. Prejudices can also create a barrier in the mind of the receiver at the time of the reception and decoding of the message. If the receiver is indifferent to or has any presumptions regarding the sender or what he is trying to put across, then his biases will create a mental block and interfere with his ability to evaluate the content of the message objectively and judiciously. This will lead to misinterpretation of the message and communication will fail. Thus, the receiver must take in new ideas/information with an open mind and should not let his biases influence his perception and reasoning ability. People with deep-rooted biases and a rigid mindset tend to be resistant to new ideas. Such inflexibility hampers listening and leads to miscommunication. Hence, both the sender and receiver should be receptive of new ideas in order to overcome such psychological and personal barriers. To sum up, most of the barriers in communication can be overcome if the sender encodes his message in a clear and precise manner, leaving no room for misinterpretation or miscommunication, and if the receiver acquires effective listening skills and gives an appropriate and timely feedback. When the communicators are able to surmount the barriers and succeed in exchanging their ideas/opinions/information without any omission, filtering or distortion, communication is said to have achieved its purpose. Let us now discuss how effective communication can be achieved within a business organization. Business organizations should adopt an open door policy at all levels. There should be an atmosphere of trust and confidence in the organization so that the communication gap between the superiors and the subordinates may be reduced. Organizational hierarchies and policies should not deter the free flow of information within an organization. The superiors must encourage their subordinates to communicate without hesitation. Such two-way communication within an organization will definitely help minimize the communication gap between the employees. The subordinates should be encouraged to participate in the decision-making process and also in solving problems or dispelling crises situations in an organization. Their ideas and contributions should be valued as this would motivate them to come up with innovative ideas/solutions and share them with their superiors with some conviction. Providing an open environment which is conducive to free interaction among the employees will prove beneficial and will contribute to the growth and success of the organization. The simplification, decentralization, and democratization of the communication network within an organization will definitely help in improving communication and making it effective. There should be frequent meetings, conferences, etc. and the management should ensure that the subordinates take an active part in the functioning of the organization i.e. not only by executing the orders or carrying out the instructions passively but also by contributing to the formulation of organizational policies and by sharing their knowledge and experience which can in turn help the superiors in making better business decisions. Such a participative and democratic approach would help reduce the communication barriers to great extent. In short, in business communication there are chances of communication failure because the message is not only complex in itself but also the stages through which it passes renders it susceptible to various interferences, i.e. barriers- semantic, personal, psychological, and/or organizational. To become a successful communicator, one must keep in mind the aforementioned guidelines in order to overcome the communication barriers and to communicate effectively. CHAPTER REVIEW In this chapter, we have discussed the meaning of the

Tobacco, Cigarettes, and Smoking - Whats in a Cigarette? :: Exploratory Essays Research Papers

What's in a Cigarette? For those who still don't know - let me emphatically state that cigarette smoking is a true addiction, more powerful than a dependence on alcohol, heroin or cocaine. To grasp this well-documented fact, one really doesn't have to study all the supporting scientific evidence. One simply needs to consider that no other drug is self-administered with the persistence, regularity and frequency of a cigarette. At an average rate of ten puffs per cigarette, a one to three pack-a-day smoker inhales 70,000 to 200,000 individual doses of mainstream smoke during a single year. Ever since its large scale industrial production early in this century, the popularity of the modern cigarette has been spreading like wildfire. Here is the first, and perhaps the most significant answer to the title question: Addiction is in a cigarette. Probing into what makes a cigarette so irresistible, we find that much of the recent research corroborates earlier claims: It is for the nicotine in tobacco that the smoker smokes, the chewer chews, and the dipper dips. Hence, nicotine is in a cigarette. In contrast to other drugs, nicotine delivery from tobacco carries an ominous burden of chemical poisons and cancer-producing substances that boggle the mind. Many toxic agents are in a cigarette. However, additional toxicants are manufactured during the smoking process by the chemical reactions occurring in the glowing tip of the cigarette. The number is staggering: more than 4,000 hazardous compounds are present in the smoke that smokers draw into their lungs and which escapes into the environment between puffs. The burning of tobacco generates more than 150 billion tar particles per cubic inch, constituting the visible portion of cigarette smoke. According to chemists at R. J. Reynolds Tobacco Company, cigarette smoke is 10,000 times more concentrated than the automobile pollution at rush hour on a freeway. The lungs of smokers, puffing a daily ration of 20 to 60 low to high tar cigarettes, collect an annual deposit of one-quarter to one and one-half pounds of the gooey black material, amounting to a total of 15 to 90 million pounds of carcinogen-packed tar for the aggregate of current American smokers. Hence, tar is in a cigarette. But visible smoke contributes only 5-8% to the total output of a cigarette. The remaining bulk that cannot be seen makes up the so-called vapor or gas phase of cigarette "smoke.